Teaching Children Using a Total Physical Response (TPR) Method: Rethinking

Berikut ini adalah salah satu dari sekian banyak metode yang dapat digunakan dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris. Kali ini saya akan menuliskannya dalam dua versi yakni versi bahasa Inggris dan versi bahasa Indonesia sebagai tugas pengganti ujian akhir semester dari mata kuliah Bahasa Inggris II dengan dosen pengampu ibu Widya Karmilasari Achmad, S.Pd., M.Pd.

English version

Teaching Children Using a Total Physical Response (TPR) Method: Rethinking

Handoyo Puji Widodo

WHAT IS TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)

TPR is one of the English teaching approaches and methods developed by Dr. James J Asher. It has been applied for almost thirty years. This method attempts to center attention to encouraging  learners to listen and respond to the spoken target language commands of their teachers. In other words, TPR is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity.

Asher’s Total Physical Response is a “natural method” since Asher views first and second language learning as parallel processes. He argues that second language teaching and learning should reflect the naturalistic processes of first language learning. For this reason, there are such three central processes:

(a)    before children develop the ability to speak, they develop listening competence.

(b)   children’s ability in listening comprehension is acquired because children need to respond physically to spoken language in the form of parental commands; and

(c)    when a foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.

Asher believes that it is crucial to base foreign language learning upon how children learn their native language. In other words, TPR is designed based upon the way that children learn their mother tongue. In this respect, TPR considers that one learns best when he is actively involved and grasp what he hears (Haynes, 2004; Larsen-Freeman, 1986; Linse, 2005).

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TPR

TPR has some advantages and disadvantages. Its advantages include:

1)      It is a lot of fun. Learners enjoy it, and this method can be a real stirrer in the class. It lifts the pace and the mood;

2)      It is very memorable. It does assist students to recognize phrases or words;

3)      It is good for kinaesthetic learners who are required to be active in the class;

4)      It can be used both in large or small classes. In this case, it is no matter to have how many students you have as long as you are prepared to take the lead, the learners will follow;

5)      It works well with mixed-ability classes. The physical actions get across the meaning effectively so that all the learners are able to comprehend and apply the target language;

6)      It is no need to have a lot of preparation or materials using the TPR. In this regard, as long as you are competent of what you want to practise (a rehearsal beforehand can help), it will not take a lot of time to get ready;

7)      It is very effective with teenagers and young learners; and

8)      It involves both left and right-brained learning;

In addition to such advantages, TPR has disadvantages. Among them are:

1. Students who are not used to such things might find it embarrassing. This can be the case initially that if the teacher is prepared to perform the actions, the students feel happier about copying. In addition, the students are in a group and do not have to perform for the whole class;
2. It is only really suitable for beginner levels. Whilst, it is clear that it is far more useful at lower levels because the target language lends itself to such activities even though it can successfully be applied at Intermediate and Advanced levels. In this respect, it is essential to adapt the language, accordingly. For example, when teaching ‘ways of walking’ (stumble, stagger, and tiptoe) to an advanced class and cooking verbs to intermediate students (whisk, stir, and grate), TPR can be employed;
3. It is not flexibly used to teach everything, and if used a lot, it would become repetitive. This method is a fun way of changing the dynamics and pace of a lesson used in conjunction with other methods and techniques. To sum up, TPR should best be combined with others since it needs much energy so that learners do not feel tired of learning language; and
4. Although the use of TPR in the classroom has often been effective, it does have its flaws. One of this method flaws is that when a teacher uses TPR in their lesson, they will have trouble teaching abstract vocabulary or expressions. As a remedy, the teacher can write the word on cards with a picture if applicable. Another flaw is that TPR can be ineffective if the teacher uses it for a long period of time without switching it with other activities that help teach the target language. Since TPR is made up of mainly of commands, it tends to neglect narrative, descriptions, and conversation forms of language.

THE APPLICATION OF TPR IN THE CLASSROOM

TPR can be used to teach and practise such many things as:

1. vocabulary connected with actions (smile, chop, headache, wriggle);
2. grammatival items, including tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean my teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast);
3. classroom language (Open your books);
4. a imperativesi Instructions (Stand up, close you eyes); and
5. storry telling

There is generally no basic text in a Total Physical Response course. Materials and realia have a demanding role, yet in forthcoming learning stages. In this case, the teacher’s voice, actions, gestures, and common classroom objects, such as books, pens, cups, and so on are great importance in the learning-teaching process using TPR. The teacher may be required to use pictures, realia, slides, and word charts to set an interactive activity.

According to Muhren (2003), the basic technique of TPR is simple. Learners act out commands given by the teacher or their fellow pupils (at a later stage). These commands, or series of commands, are simple at the beginning (stand up, sit down) but after some time they may become more complex (I want the boys to stand in a circle please). A TPR sequence can be a chain of actions relating to a compound task (take pen and paper, sit down, begin at the top of your paper, write down: Dear …) or even contain a story-line.

Most importantly, a teacher helps learners to be totally involved in TPR activities so that they can act out what they have heard. There is no pressure on them to speak the foreign language. Before any learner can commence to speak out a foreign language spontaneously as well as creatively, she must feel the inner readiness to do so. When learners are ready, they feel that the words of the language-sound and meaning integrated and combined into larger utterances -spring from within themselves. This inner readiness will develop gradually but inevitably with prolonged exposure to the sound of understood language and an active involvement in its meaning.

Here is a sample materials used in TPR:

Sample Materials 1:

Context : Teaching Vocabulary 1

New words : blue, yellow, green, orange, brown, grey, purple, black, white, card, to pick up

Preparation : A number of small coloured cards, one of more cards on every pupil’s desk, a set of cards on a central desk.

Procedures :

1. The teacher picks up cards one by one and says what colour they are.

• A blue card.
• An orange card.
• A yellow card.
• A red card.
• A brown card.
• A grey card.
• A purple card.
• A black card.
• A white card.
• A green card.
• Red.
• Blue.
• Purple.

1. The teacher gives commands to the class.

• Who’s got a red card? Show it to me.
• Who’s got a blue card? Show it to me.
• Who’s got a yellow card? Show it to me.

1. The teacher invites individual pupils to come out to the central desk.

• Devi, pick up a purple card and show it to the class.
• Show the class a black card.
• Show the class a green card.
• Show the class a grey card.

CONCLUSIONS

When TPR is applied in the classroom, a teacher is required to provide a model. The model has three vital features: 1) grasping the spoken language must come prior to speaking, 2) comprehension is developed through body movement, and 3) the period of listening period helps a learner to be ready to speak. Such a model does not force the learner to speak. It is also recommended that TPR be applied for only short periods of time because the learner will get tired of doing it.

The TPR method also emphazises two crucial elements: the use of movement as a memory enhancer and imperatives as the only method of instruction-the teacher uses commands to direct the learners.

Most importantly, when applying such a method, the use of mother tongue is deemphasized. If there are abstract words, a teacher is required to write down them on the whitelblack boards without expressing those words. The meaning of words is comprehended generally through an action.

http://sastra.um.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Teaching-Children-Using-a-Total-Physical-Response-TPR-Method-Rethinking-Handoyo-Puji-Widodo.pdf

Indonesian version

Mengajar Anak-Anak dengan Menggunakan Metode Respon Fisik Total (RFT) : Berpikir Ulang

Handoyo Puji Widodo

APAKAH RESPON FISIK TOTAL

RFT adalah salah satu pendekatan pengajaran dan metode bahasa inggris yang dikembangkan oleh Dr. James J Asher. Metode ini telah diterapkan hampir 30 tahun. Metode ini mencoba ke pusat perhatian agar mendorong pebelajar mendengar dan merespon pada perintah target bahasa yang diucapkan oleh guru mereka. Dengan kata lain, RFT adalah metode pengajaran bahasa yang dibangun disekitar koordinasi dari ucapan dan tindakan; metode ini mencoba mengajarkan bahasa melalui fisik (motorik) aktivitas.

Respon Fisik Total milik Asher adalah sebuah “metode alami” karena Asher menganggap pembelajaran bahasa pertama dan kedua sebagai proses paralel. Dia mengemukakan bahwa pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa kedua harus mencerminkan proses naturalistik dari pembelajaran bahasa pertama. Untuk alasan ini, ada tiga proses sentral :

1. Sebelum anak-anak mengembangkan kemampuan berbicara, mereka mengembangkan kemampuan mendengarkan.
2. Kemampuan anak-anak dalam pemahaman mendengarkan yang diperoleh karena anak-anak perlu untuk merespon secara fisik pada bahasa yang diucapkan dalam bentuk perintah-perintah orang tua; dan
3. Ketika sebuah dasar dalam kemampuan mendengarkan telah dibuat, kemampuan berbicara berkembang secara alami dan mudah.

Asher yakin bahwa itu penting untuk pembelajaran dasar bahasa asing sebagaimana anak-anak belajar bahasa asli mereka. Dengan kata lain, RFT dirancang berdasarkan pada cara yang anak-anak pelajari dari bahasa ibu mereka. Dalam hal ini, RFT menganggap bahwa seseorang belajar dengan baik ketika dia secara aktif terlibat dan memahami apa yang dia dengar (Haynes, 2004; Larsen-Freeman, 1986; Linse, 2005)

KEUNTUNGAN DAN KEKURANGAN RFT

RFT mempunyai beberapa keuntungan dan kekurangan. Keuntungannya antara lain :

1. Metode ini menyenangkan. Pebelajar menikmatinya, dan metode ini dapat membuat kelas menjadi aktif. Hal ini meningkatkan langkah dan suasana hati;
2. Metode ini bagus untuk pebelajar kinestetik yang dituntut aktif dalam kelas;
3. Metode ini sangat mengesankan. Metode ini membantu murid untuk mengenal frase-frase atau kata-kata;
4. Metode ini dapat digunakan dalam kelas yang besar atau kecil. Dalam metode ini, tidak penting berapa banyak murid yang Anda miliki asalkan Anda siap untuk memimpin, pebelajar akan mengikuti;
5. Metode ini bekerja dengan baik pada kelas-kelas yang kemampuannya bermacam-macam. Tindakan fisik dipahami artinya secara efektif sehingga semua pebelajar dapat memahami dan menggunakan bahasa target;
6. Metode ini tidak membutuhkan banyak persiapan atau bahan-bahan yang digunakan dalam RTF. Dalam hal ini, asalkan Anda berkompeten dari apa yang Anda ingin latih (sebuah latihan sebelumnya dapat membantu), metode ini tidak akan memakan waktu yang lama dalam mempersiapkannya;
7. Metode ini sangat efektif pada remaja dan pebelajar muda; dan
8. Metode ini melibatkan pembelajaran otak kiri dan otak kanan;

Selain keuntungan tersebut, RFT mempunyai kekurangan. Diantaranya adalah :

1. Murid yang belum menggunakan hal-hal seperti ini mungkin akan malu. Ini dapat terjadi pada awalnya jika guru bersiap melakukan tindakan-tindakan, murid-murid merasa lebih senang meniru. Selain itu, murid-murid berkelompok dan tidak harus menampilkan ke seluruh kelas.
2. Metode ini sangat cocok hanya pada tingkat pemula. Meskipun, metode ini jelas lebih bermanfaat pada tingkat pemula karena bahasa target dengan sendirinya memberi aktivitas namun metode ini berhasil digunakan di tingkat menengah dan lanjutan. Dalam hal ini, metode ini pada dasarnya menyesuaikan pada bahasa, sesuai dengan itu. Contohnya, ketika mengajarkan “cara berjalan” (tersandung, terhuyung-huyung, dan berjingkat-jingkat) pada kelas lanjutan dan kata kerja memasak pada murid-murid menengah (mengocok, mengaduk, dan memarut), RFT dapat digunakan.
3. Metode ini tidak fleksibel untuk mengajarkan segalanya, dan jika sering digunakan, metode ini akan berulang. Metode ini adalah cara yang menyenangkan dari merubah dinamika dan langkah dari pelajaran yang digunakan dalam hubunganny dengan metode dan teknik lainnya. Kesimpulannya, RFT paling bagus dikombinasikan dengan lainnya karena metode ini perlu banyak kekuatan sehingga pebelajar tidak merasa letih mempelajari bahasa; dan
4. Meskipun penggunaan RTF di kelas sering efektif, metode ini memiliki kekurangan. Salah satu kekurangan dari metode ini adalah ketika guru menggunakan RFT dalam pelajarannya, mereka akan mendapatkan masalah dalam mengajarkan kosa kata atau ekspresi yang abstrak. Sebagai perbaikan, guru dapat menuliskan katanya di kartu-kartu dengan gambar jika dapat dipakai. Kekurangan lainnya yaitu RFT dapat menjadi tidak efektif jika guru menggunakannya untuk jangka waktu yang lama tanpa menggantinya dengan aktivitas-aktivitas lain yang membantu mengajarkan bahasa target. Karena RFT dibuat dari sebagian besar perintah, metode ini cenderung mengabaikan bentuk bahasa cerita, deskripsi, dan percakapan.

PENGGUNAAN RFT DI KELAS

RFT dapat digunakan untuk mengajar dan melatih beberapa hal seperti :

1. Kosa kata yang berhubungkan dengan tindakan (tersenyum, memotong, sakit kepala, menggeliat)
2. Tata bahasa, termasuk aspek-aspek masa lampau/sekarang/akan datang dan yang terus menerus/berlanjut (setiap pagi saya membersihkan gigiku, saya membuat tempat tidurku, saya makan pagi);
3. Kelas bahasa (buka bukumu)
4. Perintah
5. Bercerita

Umumnya tidak ada buku pelajaran dasar dalam serangkaian RFT. Materi-materi dan realia mempunyai peran yang berat, bahkan dalam tingkat pembelajaran akan datang. Dalam hal ini, suara guru, tindakan, gerak-gerik, dan benda-benda umum di kelas, seperti buku, pulpen, piala, dan sebagainya sangat penting dalam proses belajar mengajar menggunakan RTF. Guru mungkin perlu menggunakan gambar-gambar, realia, slide, dan grafik kata untuk mengatur aktivitas interaktif.

Menurut Muhren (2003), teknik dasar dari RTF sederhana. Pebelajar melakukan perintah-perintah yang diberikan oleh guru atau sesama murid mereka (di tingkatan selanjutnya). Perintah-perintah ini, atau rangakaian perintah, sederhana pada awalnya (berdiri, duduk) tapi beberapa waktu setelahnya mungkin menjadi lebih kompleks (saya ingin anak laki-laki itu berdiri di dalam lingkaran silahkan). Sebuah urutan RTF dapat menjadi rangkaikan tindakan yang berhubungan dengan sekumpulan tugas (ambil pulpen dan kertas, duduk, mulailah pada bagian atas kertasmu, tulislah: Yang terhormar/tersayang…..) atau bahkan berisi jalan cerita.

Yang paling penting, seorang guru membantu pebelajar agar benar-benar terlibat dalam aktivitas RTF sehingga mereka dapat melakukan apa yang mereka telah dengar. Tidak ada tekanan pada mereka untuk berbicara dalam bahasa asing. Sebelum beberapa pebelajar dapat memulai berbicara bahasa asing secara spontan serta secara kreatif, dia harus merasakan kesiapan batin untuk melakukannya. Ketika pebelajar siap, mereka merasa bahwa kata-kata dari bunyi bahasa dan arti  digabungkan dan dikombinasikan ke dalam sumber ucapan/ungkapan dari diri mereka. Kesiapan batin ini akan berkembang secara bertahap tapi pasti dengan paparan suara dari memahami bahasa dan terlibat aktif dalam maknanya.

Berikut sebuah contoh materi yang digunakan dalam TPR:

Contoh Materi 1:

Konteks: Pengajaran Kosa Kata 1

Kata baru : biru, kuning, hijau, jingga, coklat, abu-abu, ungu, hitam, putih, kartu, mengambil

Persiapan: beberapa kartu kecil berwarna, satu dari beberapa kartu di setiap meja murid, satu set kartu di meja pusat

Prosedur :

1. Guru mengambil kartu satu persatu dan menyebutkan warnanya

• Sebuah kartu biru
• Sebuah kartu jingga
• Sebuah kartu kuning
• Sebuah kartu merah
• Sebuah kartu coklat
• Sebuah kartu abu-abu
• Sebuah kartu ungu
• Sebuah kartu hitam
• Sebuah kartu putih
• Sebuah kartu hijau
• Merah
• Biru
• Ungu

1. Guru memberikan perintah kepada kelas

• Siapa yang mendapatkan sebuah kartu merah? Tunjukkan pada ibu
• Siapa yang mendapatkan sebuah kartu biru? Tunjukkan pada ibu
• Siapa yang mendapatkan sebuah kartu kuning? Tunjukkan pada ibu

1. Guru meminta seorang murid untuk ke meja pusat

• Devi, ambillah sebuah kartu ungu dan perlihatkanlah ke kelas
• Perlihatkanlah ke kelas sebuah kartu hitam
• Perlihatkanlah ke kelas sebuah kartu hijau
• Perlihatkanlah ke kelas sebuah kartu abu-abu

KESIMPULAN

Ketika RTF digunakan di kelas, seorang guru harus memberikan contoh. Contoh tersebut mempunyai tiga keutamaan: 1)  memahami bahasa lisan haruslah sebelum berbicara, 2) pemahaman dikembangkan melalui gerak tubuh, dan 3)waktu dari waktu mendengar membantu pebelajar agar siap berbicara. Contoh seperti itu tidak memaksa pebelajar untuk berbicara. Hal ini juga disarankan agar RTF digunakan hanya untuk jangka waktu yang singkat karena pebelajar akan bosan melakukannya.

Metode RTF juga menekankan dua unsur utama: penggunaan gerakan sebagai penambah daya ingat dan keharusan sebagai satu-satunya metode pembelajaran guru menggunakan perintah untuk mengarahkan pebelajar.

Yang paling penting, ketika menggunakan metode tersebut, penggunaan bahasa ibu ditekankan. Jika ada kata-kata abstrak, seorang guru harus menulisnya di papan tulis tanpa menunjukkan kata-kata itu. Arti kata-kata dimengerti secara umum melalui tindakan.

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SUMMARY OF ENGLISH II IN SECOND SEMESTER

Berikut ini adalah rangkuman mata kuliah Bahasa Inggris II dengan dosen pengampu ibu Widya Karmilasari Achmad, S.Pd., M.Pd.

1. FUNCTIONAL WORD

A. NOUN

A noun is a word that represents a person, a place, or a thing. A thing in this definition can be a physical entity or it can be an abstract idea. A noun may be used as a subject or as a object  of a sentence.

# A noun as a subject

A noun as a subject can be in singular, plural, countable, or uncountable form. A noun called singular if the noun is just one and if the noun is more than one, it called plural. Generally,  if singular be  plural, we have to add “s” in end of the noun. The examples are :

• The girl is beautiful
• The books are very expensive

The girl is the subject of the first sentence and it formed singular because the girl is just one. The books is the subject of the second sentence and it formed plural because in end of the book is added “s” and it signified that the book is more than one.

A noun called countable if we can count it and it can show the quantity, like one, two, or three pens. Generally, the things around us are countable nouns, like cat, dog, man, baby, person, animal, bottle, box, coin, cup, plate, chair, bag, glass, book, house, etc. Whereas, a noun called uncountable if we can not count it, like water. We can not say that one water or two water but it more corretcly if use it with another countable nouns, the example is a glass of water. The example of countable nouns are sand, water, rice, sugar, coffee, tea, advice, fun, love, etc.

# A noun as a object

A noun as a object divided in two types, that is noun as direct object and noun as indirect object. Some examples of noun usage appear in the following sentences.

1. Noun as direct object

• ‘Ammar  washed the car.
• The authorities commended Muqbil.

We can identify a direct object by asking what or whom. First sentence, ‘Ammar washed what? Answer: car. Car is the direct object of the verb washed. Second sentence, The authorities commended whom? Answer: Muqbil. Muqbil is the direct object of the verb commended.

2. Noun as indirect object

• I sent Maryam the camera.
• He bought the dog a kennel.

We can identify an indirect object by asking to what, for what, or to whom, for whom. First sentence, I sent the camera to whom? Answer: Maryam. Maryam is the indirect object. Second sentence, He bought a kennel for what? Answer: dog. Dog is the indirect object.

B. ADJECTIVE

Adjective is a word that describes (qualifies) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives convey a sense of which, what kind, or how many or much.

Where do you put adjectives?

1. Before the noun: I love pepperoni pizza. Adjectives are seldom placed directly after the noun.
2. After the pronoun: When the indefinite pronouns something, someone, anybody,etc., are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun: Someone mean enough to kick a dog would also kick a child. Anyone decent would abhor that behavior. Something  good will always come to those who have patience.
3. After certain verbs: tobe, to become, to get, to seem, to look, to feel, to sound, to smell, to taste. Her skin feels soft.

What is the function of adjective?

Adjectives tell us more about a noun. They can :

1. Describe feelings or qualities. The examples are he is a lonely man, they are honest people.
2. Guve nationality or origin. The examples are Pierre is French, our house is victorian.
3. Tell more about a thing’s characteristics. The examples are a wooden table, the knife is sharp.
4. Tell us about age. The examples are he is a young man, my coat is very old.
5. Tell us about size and measurement. The example is this is a very long film.
6. Tell us about material or what something is made of. The example is it was a wooden table.
7. Tell us about shape. The examples are a rectangular box, a square envelope.
8. Express a judgement or a value. The examples are a fantastic film, English is fun.

There are  the type of adjective :

1. Demonstrative Adjective

Demonstrative adjective is adjectives that point out which thing or person is indicated, like this, these, that, those.

a)      This is used to point out singular thing near to the speaker. The example is this is an apple.

b)      These is used to point out plural thing near to the speaker. The example is i know these girls.

c)       That is used to point out singular thing far to the speaker. The example is that is your book.

d)      Those is used to point out plural thing far to the speaker. The example is those stones are very heavy.

2. Distributive Adjective

Distributive adjective denote that the things or persons named are taken separately, singly or in separate lots. Adjectives of this class are each, every, neither, and either. But in this semester only two adjectives that already explained, each and every.

a)      Each is specially one thing and it refers to the individual members. The example is each student has to participate.

b)      Every can mean more than one thing and somewhat more general like. It refers to all members of group. The example is every group of students has to do an experiment.

3. Quantitative Adjective

Quantitative adjective is adjective that point out how much the thing that we mean.

a)      Much and many

Much and many has same meaning that is “banyak”. Much is used only on countable nouns, whereas many is used only on uncountable nouns. When we use much or many in positive sentence, we have to add “too” before it.

• Luqman has too many trophies
• Dzulqarnain has not get many pens
• Abdurrahman has too much money in the bank
• Fauzan collected many sources for his paper

b)      Few and little

Few and little has same meaning that is “sedikit”. Few is used only on countable nouns, whereas little is used only on uncountable nouns.

• Shofiyyah will be in Makassar for a few days
• When Khadijah was in college, there was little money to spare

c)       Some and any

Some and any has same meaning that is “beberapa”. Some and any are used on countable nouns and uncountable nouns. But some is used in positive sentence, whereas any are used only in negative sentence and introgative sentence.

• Hafizhah has got some money
• I have some questions for you
• Do you have any pens?
• I do not have any advices for her

d)      A lot of

A lot of is informal subtitutes for much and many. It is used with uncountable nouns when it means “much” and with countable nouns when it means “many”. It is used only in positive sentence and it happened in past.

• Masyithah has a lot of home works last week.
• Abdurrahman has a lot of money in the bank

2. WORD PARTS

There are many words in the English language. We will never know the meaning of every word in English. When we read, we often find many words that we do not know. We will not have enough time to stop reading and try to find every new word in dictionary.

Sometimes we can understand a new word because we know some of the parts of the new word. For example, if a word ends in the letters –er, that word might be the name for a person or thing that does a certain action, like writer, teacher, driver, listener, etc. Sometimes, it is not enough to know the parts of a new word to understand it, but it will help us many times.

• -er                          :  a person or thing does a certain action.

Example               :  Mr. Luqman teaches English

He is an English teacher

• -ly                           :  in the manner of; this word tells how

Example               :  Ali is a quick swimmer

He swims very quickly

• re-                          :  do again

Example               :  Maryam has to write the letter again

She has to rewrite the letter

• in-                           :  not; negative

Example               :  Her account was not active

It was inactive

• im-                         :  not; negative. It uses before the letters b, m, and p

Example               :  He is not mature for his age

He is immature for his age

• il-                            :  not; negative. It uses before the letter l

Example               :  The use of drugs is not legal

The use of drugs is illegal

• ir-                            :  not; negative. It uses before the letter r

Example               :  He is a very not responsible young man

He is a very irresponsible young man

3. RELATIVE PRONOUN

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause within a larger sentence. It is called relative pronoun because it relates to the word that it modifies. A relative pronoun links two caluses into single complex clause. To this extent, it is similiar in function to a subordinating conjunction. Unlike a conjunction, however, relative pronouns stands in plasce of a noun.  Generally, there are two types of relative clauses: restrictive(defining) clause and non-restrictive(non-defining) clause.

1. Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT separated from the main clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses (also known as defining relative clauses) add essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence’s meaning correctly and can not be omitted. In other words, without the restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense.

2. Relative Pronouns in Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Although similar in use, relative pronouns that introduce a non-restrictive relative clauses ARE separated from the main clause by a comma (in most instances). Typically, which is the preferred relative pronoun for indicating that are lative clause is non-restrictive. Non-restrictive relative clauses (also known as non-defining relative clauses) provide non-essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is not crucial for understanding the sentence’s meaning correctly and can be omitted without affecting the sentence’s meaning. In other words, non-restrictive relative clauses are an a side that add extra information.

“That” vs. “Who” and “Which”

The relative pronoun that can only be used in restrictive clauses. It can also be substituted for who(referring to persons) or which(referring to things) in informal English. Whereas that is often used while speaking, who and which are more common in formal written English.

• Conversational, Informal:

William Kellogg was the man that lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children.

• Written, Formal:

William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children.

• Conversational, Informal:

The café that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.

• Written, Formal:

The café, which sells the best coffee in town, has recently been closed.

Some Special Uses of Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Clauses

1. That / who

When referring to people, both that and who can be used in informal language.”That” may be used to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or a group of people:

• He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.
• I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.

However, when speaking about a particular person in formal language, who is preferred:

• The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.
• The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody’s attention at the party.

2. That / which

There are several cases when that is more appropriate than which:

a)      After the pronouns “all”, “any(thing)”, “every(thing)”, “few,” “little”, “many”, “much”,  “no(thing)”, “none”, “some(thing)”.

• The police usually ask foreverydetailthathelps identify the missing person.Dessert isallthathe wants.

b)      After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

• This is the best resource that I have ever read!

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses and in non-restrictive relative clauses :

	Restrictive		Non-restrictive
	Human	Non-human	Human	Non-human
Subject	Who, that	Which, that	Who	Which
Object	Who, whom, that, ∅	Which, that, ∅	Who, whom	Which
After Preposition	Whom	Which	Whom	Which
Possessive	Whose, of whom	Whose, of which	Whose, of whom	Whose, of which

4. TRANSLATION

                Translation is the action of interpretation the meaning of the text, and subsequent production of an equivalent text, also called a translation that communicates the same message in another language. The process of translation as illustrated above can be explained as follows :

1. Analysis

In this stage, the translator analyzes the text which is going to be translated, including the analysis of the grammatical relationship, the meaning of the words, and combination of words. The most important thing in this stage is to understand the content and the message in the original text.

2. Transfer

The transferring stage happens in the mind of the translator. After understanding the idea and the content of the source text, the translator starts searching the equivalent words and thinking of the most approriate way to translate it into the target language. In this part, the translator has to convey the message and the meaning of the source language in such way that is has to be equivalent with the message and the meaning of target language.

3. Restructuring

The last stage in the process of translation is that the translator has to restructure the transferred material with good languge so that the translation is fully acceptable for the target reader. In order to get the best translation, the translator has to master the grammar, diction, and style of the target language.

In translating process, a translator usually comes across many problems which mainly relates to linguistic. There are several kinds of meaning that have to be understood by a translator. The following kinds of meaning may probably cause some problems for a translator in his process of translating.

a. Lexical meaning

lexical meaning is the meaning of the word as mentioned in dictionary, for example the adjective “dark” in the dictionary has four meanings, namely : gelap, tua, suram, dan hitam.

b. Grammatical meaning

Grammatical meaning means that a translator should comparehend the relation between elements of language in the larger units such as the relation between a word and another word within phrase or clause. The examples is the word “fly” as a noun it means  “lalat”, while as a verb it means “terbang”

c. Contextual meaning

Contextual meaning means that each word has meaning related to its contex and situation as it is used in a sentence. The example is the verb “join” in the sentences :

• “Will you join us?” means “ikut serta dengan”
• “I join with the club” means “menjadi anggota”
• “The bridge joins the two islands” means “menghubungkan”

d. Pragmatical meaning

Pragmatical meaning is the meaning of the word that based on linguistic information such as vocabulary and syntax; and contextual meaning such as the role and status of speaker. The example:

A : Are the neighbors on vacation?

B : I have not seen their car all week.

In the dialog, response of the speaker B makes speaker A has to interpret it, because the speaker B not explicitly anwer question of speaker A with “yes, they are” or “yes, I think they are” like the answer of yes/no question commonly. But response of the speker B is undamaged communication between them, because at the explicit level what the speaker B hope from his answer, the speaker A can understand it. Because of that, the speaker A thinks that “of course, they are on vacation”.

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